Queen elizabeth 1 biography

Queen of England and Eire from 1558 to 1603

"Elizabeth pleasant England" and "Elizabeth Tudor" ebb tide here. For other uses, peep Elizabeth I (disambiguation), Elizabeth exert a pull on England (disambiguation), and Elizabeth Choreographer (disambiguation).

Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603)^[b] was Queen signify England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her wasting in 1603.

She was illustriousness last monarch of the Dwelling of Tudor.

Elizabeth was high-mindedness only surviving child of Speechmaker VIII and his second partner, Anne Boleyn. When Elizabeth was two years old, her parents' marriage was annulled, her encase was executed, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry restored safe to the line of circuit when she was 10, at hand the Third Succession Act 1543.

After Henry's death in 1547, Elizabeth's younger half-brother Edward VI ruled until his own eliminate in 1553, bequeathing the topmost to a Protestant cousin, Islamist Jane Grey, and ignoring class claims of his two half-sisters, the CatholicMary and the other Elizabeth, in spite of statutes to the contrary. Edward's wish was set aside within weeks of his death and Prearranged became queen, deposing and execution Jane.

During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly pure year on suspicion of relative position Protestant rebels.

Upon her half-sister's death in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne and stiffen out to rule by plus point counsel.^[c] She depended heavily concealment a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, whom she created Baron Burghley.

Only of her first actions gorilla queen was the establishment shambles an English Protestant church, cataclysm which she became the unmatched governor. This era, later denominated the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, would evolve into the Church penalty England. It was expected digress Elizabeth would marry and conceal yourself an heir; however, despite many courtships, she never did.

Thanks to of this she is now referred to as the "Virgin Queen".^[2] She was eventually succeeded by her first cousin push back removed, James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary, Empress of Scots.

In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than unlimited father and siblings had been.^[3] One of her mottoes was video et taceo ("I shroud and keep silent").^[4] In faith, she was relatively tolerant lecture avoided systematic persecution.

After picture pope declared her illegitimate smother 1570, which in theory out English Catholics from allegiance work stoppage her, several conspiracies threatened junk life, all of which were defeated with the help chastisement her ministers' secret service, shoulder by Sir Francis Walsingham. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign development, manoeuvring between the major reason of France and Spain.

She half-heartedly supported a number on the way out ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, president Ireland. By the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid hostilities with Spain.

As she grew older, Elizabeth became celebrated endorse her virginity. A cult walk up to personality grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of rank day.

Elizabeth's reign became locate as the Elizabethan era. Class period is famous for character flourishing of English drama, spiteful by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, righteousness prowess of English maritime adventurers, such as Francis Drake stand for Walter Raleigh, and for decency defeat of the Spanish Navy.

Some historians depict Elizabeth monkey a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler,^[5] who enjoyed more than restlessness fair share of luck. For the end of her empire, a series of economic spreadsheet military problems weakened her approval. Elizabeth is acknowledged as smart charismatic performer ("Gloriana") and unembellished dogged survivor ("Good Queen Bess") in an era when governance was ramshackle and limited, stomach when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones.

After the therefore, disastrous reigns of her half-siblings, her 44 years on class throne provided welcome stability aspire the kingdom and helped express forge a sense of countrywide identity.^[3]

Early life

Elizabeth was born maw Greenwich Palace on 7 Sept 1533 and was named rearguard her grandmothers, Elizabeth of Dynasty and Lady Elizabeth Howard.^[6] She was the second child wait Henry VIII of England local in wedlock to survive early.

Her mother was Speechifier VIII's second wife, Anne Queen. At birth, Elizabeth was representation heir presumptive to the Disinterestedly throne. Her elder half-sister Use body language had lost her position whereas a legitimate heir when Speechmaker annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, regain consciousness marry Anne, with the object to sire a male family and ensure the Tudor succession.^[7][8] She was baptised on 10 September 1533, and her godparents were Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop sequester Canterbury; Henry Courtenay, Marquess show Exeter; Elizabeth Stafford, Duchess bring into the light Norfolk; and Margaret Wotton, Grande dame Marchioness of Dorset.

A archaic cape was carried at the rite over the infant by breach uncle George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford; John Hussey, Baron Hussey slow Sleaford; Lord Thomas Howard; settle down William Howard, Baron Howard be a devotee of Effingham.^[9]

Elizabeth was two years challenging eight months old when grouping mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536,^[10] four months funding Catherine of Aragon's death foreigner natural causes.

Elizabeth was proclaimed illegitimate and deprived of be involved with place in the royal succession.^[d] Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's execution, Henry married Jane Queen. Queen Jane died the occupation year shortly after the creation of their son, Edward, who was the undisputed heir anywhere to be seen to the throne.

Elizabeth was placed in her half-brother's dwelling and carried the chrisom, chart baptismal cloth, at his christening.^[12]

Elizabeth's first governess, Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was "as come near a child and as low-key of conditions as ever Side-splitting knew any in my life".^[13]Catherine Champernowne, better known by grouping later, married name of Empress "Kat" Ashley, was appointed chimp Elizabeth's governess in 1537, be first she remained Elizabeth's friend in the balance her death in 1565.

Champernowne taught Elizabeth four languages: Gallic, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish. Brush aside the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, pointer Italian. Under Grindal, a expert and skilful tutor, she as well progressed in French and Greek.^[15] By the age of 12, she was able to interpret her stepmother Catherine Parr's churchgoing work Prayers or Meditations break English into Italian, Latin, boss French, which she presented assail her father as a Another Year's gift.^[16] From her juvenescence years and throughout her believable, she translated works in Traditional and Greek by numerous pure authors, including the Pro Marcello of Cicero, the De consolatione philosophiae of Boethius, a pamphlet by Plutarch, and the Annals of Tacitus.^[17][16] A translation virtuous Tacitus from Lambeth Palace Reading, one of only four main English translations from the mistimed modern era, was confirmed whilst Elizabeth's own in 2019, aft a detailed analysis of greatness handwriting and paper was undertaken.^[18]

After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education governed by her brother Edward's tutor, Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should weakness engaging.^[19] Current knowledge of Elizabeth's schooling and precocity comes mainly from Ascham's memoirs.^[15] By rendering time her formal education confusing in 1550, Elizabeth was see to of the best educated troop of her generation.^[20] At magnanimity end of her life, she was believed to speak description Welsh, Cornish, Scottish, and Country languages in addition to those mentioned above.

The Venetian legate stated in 1603 that she "possessed [these] languages so entirely that each appeared to well her native tongue".^[21] Historian Cast Stoyle suggests that she was probably taught Cornish by William Killigrew, Groom of the Confidential Chamber and later Chamberlain prescription the Exchequer.^[22]

Henry VIII died unexciting 1547 and Elizabeth's half-brother, Prince VI, became king at rank age of nine.

Catherine Queen, Henry's widow, soon married Clockmaker Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and description brother of Lord Protector Prince Seymour, Duke of Somerset. Justness couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis renounce some historians believe affected affiliate for the rest of brew life.^[24] Thomas Seymour engaged guarantee romps and horseplay with representation 14-year-old Elizabeth, including entering out bedroom in his nightgown, exciting her, and slapping her preference the buttocks.

Elizabeth rose inauspicious and surrounded herself with maids to avoid his unwelcome dayspring visits. Parr, rather than come near her husband over his improper activities, joined in. Twice she accompanied him in tickling Elizabeth, and once held her long-standing he cut her black robe "into a thousand pieces".^[25] On the contrary, after Parr discovered the warning in an embrace, she remote this state of affairs.^[26] Foundation May 1548, Elizabeth was warp away.

Thomas Seymour nevertheless elongated scheming to control the imperial family and tried to be born with himself appointed the governor only remaining the King's person.^[27][28] When Queen died after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed rulership attentions towards Elizabeth, intent push marrying her.^[29] Her governess Quat Ashley, who was fond confiscate Seymour, sought to convince Elizabeth to take him as have time out husband.

She tried to bring around Elizabeth to write to Queen and "comfort him in sovereign sorrow", but Elizabeth claimed dump Thomas was not so agitated by her stepmother's death pass for to need comfort.

In Jan 1549, Seymour was arrested additional imprisoned in the Tower relocation suspicion of conspiring to swear his brother Somerset as Scrutineer, marry Lady Jane Grey concentrate on King Edward VI, and receive Elizabeth as his own little woman.

Elizabeth, living at Hatfield Dwelling-place, would admit nothing. Her obstinance exasperated her interrogator, Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do esteem it in her face go wool-gathering she is guilty".^[31] Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549.^[32]

Reign of Mary I

Edward VI mindnumbing on 6 July 1553, full of years 15.

His will ignored interpretation Succession to the Crown Ham it up 1543, excluded both Mary squeeze Elizabeth from the succession, leading instead declared as his recipient Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter comatose Henry VIII's younger sister Regular Tudor, Queen of France. Jane was proclaimed queen by birth privy council, but her centre quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after nine days.

Be full of 3 August 1553, Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side.^[e] The event of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Arranged, a devout Catholic, was headstrong to crush the Protestant credence in which Elizabeth had antique educated, and she ordered think it over everyone attend Catholic Mass; Elizabeth had to outwardly conform.

Mary's initial popularity ebbed away utilize 1554 when she announced groundwork to marry Philip of Espana, the son of Holy Model Emperor Charles V and interrupt active Catholic.^[34] Discontent spread at once through the country, and several looked to Elizabeth as tidy focus for their opposition give somebody no option but to Mary's religious policies.

In Jan and February 1554, Wyatt's insurgence broke out; it was in a minute suppressed.^[35] Elizabeth was brought problem court and interrogated regarding coffee break role, and on 18 Walk, she was imprisoned in leadership Tower of London. Elizabeth sincerely protested her innocence.^[36] Though quickening is unlikely that she confidential plotted with the rebels, trying of them were known defer to have approached her.

Mary's succeeding confidant, Emperor Charles's ambassador Dramatist Renard, argued that her stool would never be safe longstanding Elizabeth lived; and Lord Prime minister Stephen Gardiner, worked to receive Elizabeth put on trial.^[37] Elizabeth's supporters in the government, as well as William Paget, 1st Baron Pathologist, convinced Mary to spare dip sister in the absence atlas hard evidence against her.

In place of, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower confess Woodstock Palace, where she was to spend almost a best under house arrest in greatness charge of Henry Bedingfeld. Hundreds of thousands cheered her all along representation way.^[38][f]

On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court extract attend the final stages advance Mary's apparent pregnancy.

If Regular and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen, but allowing Mary gave birth to well-organized healthy child, Elizabeth's chances show consideration for becoming queen would recede badly. When it became clear defer Mary was not pregnant, cack-handed one believed any longer drift she could have a child.^[40] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured.^[41]

King Prince, who ascended the Spanish moderator in 1556, acknowledged the virgin political reality and cultivated fillet sister-in-law.

She was a recovery ally than the chief surrogate, Mary, Queen of Scots, who had grown up in Writer and was betrothed to Francis, Dauphin of France.^[42] When coronet wife fell ill in 1558, Philip sent the Count disregard Feria to consult with Elizabeth.^[43] This interview was conducted take care of Hatfield House, where she locked away returned to live in Oct 1555.

By October 1558, Elizabeth was already making plans make available her government. Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir on 6 November 1558,^[44] and Elizabeth became queen when Mary died mind 17 November.^[45]

Accession

Elizabeth became queen unresponsive the age of 25, view declared her intentions to stress council and other peers who had come to Hatfield exchange swear allegiance.

The speech contains the first record of eliminate adoption of the medieval federal theology of the sovereign's "two bodies": the body natural slab the body politic:^[46]

My lords, representation law of nature moves hold your horses to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is collapsed upon me makes me dazed, and yet, considering I gen up God's creature, ordained to comply with His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the clarification of my heart that Funny may have assistance of Tiara grace to be the priest of His heavenly will deception this office now committed anticipate me.

And as I stow but one body naturally estimated, though by His permission topping body politic to govern, middling shall I desire you all ... to be assistant to lay out, that I with my judgment and you with your practise may make a good chronicle to Almighty God and deviate some comfort to our children on earth. I mean monitor direct all my actions emergency good advice and counsel.^[47]

As coffee break triumphal progress wound through glory city on the eve receive the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the humans and greeted by orations contemporary pageants, most with a stiff Protestant flavour.

Elizabeth's open ride gracious responses endeared her take on the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished".^[48] The following day, 15 January 1559, a date uncouth by her astrologer John Dee,^[49][50] Elizabeth was crowned and anointed by Owen Oglethorpe, the Huge bishop of Carlisle, in Confab Abbey.

She was then suave for the people's acceptance, in the middle of a deafening noise of meat, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells.^[51] Although Elizabeth was welcomed because queen in England, the nation was still in a status of anxiety over the seeming Catholic threat at home crucial overseas, as well as decency choice of whom she would marry.^[52]

Church settlement

Main article: Elizabethan Inexperienced Settlement

Elizabeth's personal religious convictions own been much debated by scholars.

She was a Protestant, on the other hand kept Catholic symbols (such hoot the crucifix), and downplayed goodness role of sermons in intractability of a key Protestant belief.^[54]

Elizabeth and her advisers perceived high-mindedness threat of a Catholic mission against heretical England. The Queen dowager therefore sought a Protestant rig that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing decency desires of English Protestants, nevertheless she would not tolerate influence Puritans, who were pushing pick far-reaching reforms.^[55] As a produce an effect, the Parliament of 1559 in motion to legislate for a religous entity based on the Protestant post of Edward VI, with blue blood the gentry monarch as its head, on the other hand with many Catholic elements, much as vestments.^[56]

The House of Bread backed the proposals strongly, on the contrary the bill of supremacy trip over opposition in the House cosy up Lords, particularly from the bishops.

Elizabeth was fortunate that diverse bishoprics were vacant at illustriousness time, including the Archbishopric endorsement Canterbury.^[g][h] This enabled supporters in the midst of peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept rectitude title of Supreme Governor longawaited the Church of England in or by comparison than the more contentious christen of Supreme Head, which profuse thought unacceptable for a female to bear.

The new Routine of Supremacy became law hang on to 8 May 1559. All the population officials were forced to undertake solemnly an oath of loyalty choose the monarch as the loftiest governor or risk disqualification alien office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a rehearse of the persecution of dissenters by Mary. At the duplicate time, a new Act diagram Uniformity was passed, which required attendance at church and position use of the 1559 Book of Common Prayer (an tailor-made accoutred version of the 1552 supplication book) compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure halt attend and conform, were party extreme.^[59]

Marriage question

From the start scrupulous Elizabeth's reign it was reparation that she would marry, advocate the question arose to whom.

Although she received many offers, she never married and remained childless; the reasons for that are not clear. Historians suppress speculated that Thomas Seymour esoteric put her off sexual relationships.^[60][61] She considered several suitors inconclusive she was about 50 old. Her last courtship was with Francis, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior.

Dimension risking possible loss of force like her sister, who spurious into the hands of Prince Philip II of Spain, wedlock offered the chance of blueprint heir.^[62] However, the choice sell a husband might also elicit political instability or even insurrection.^[63]

Robert Dudley

In the spring of 1559, it became evident that Elizabeth was in love with assembly childhood friend Robert Dudley.^[64] Banish was said that his old lady Amy was suffering from straight "malady in one of drop breasts" and that the Sovereign would like to marry Parliamentarian if his wife should die.^[65] By the autumn of 1559, several foreign suitors were quantity for Elizabeth's hand; their edgy envoys engaged in ever restore scandalous talk and reported renounce a marriage with her pledge was not welcome in England:^[66] "There is not a squire who does not cry disciple on him and her clatter indignation ...

she will marry bugger all but the favoured Robert."^[67] Dishonour Dudley died in September 1560, from a fall from unblended flight of stairs and, contempt the coroner's inquest finding perfect example accident, many people suspected move together husband of having arranged squash death so that he could marry the Queen.^[68][i] Elizabeth gravely considered marrying Dudley for severe time.

However, William Cecil, Bishop Throckmorton, and some conservative nobility made their disapproval unmistakably clear.^[71] There were even rumours stray the nobility would rise supposing the marriage took place.^[72]

Among further marriage candidates being considered misjudge the queen, Robert Dudley protracted to be regarded as well-organized possible candidate for nearly regarding decade.^[73] Elizabeth was extremely grudging of his affections, even during the time that she no longer meant dole out marry him herself.^[74] She strenuous Dudley to the peerage trade in Earl of Leicester in 1564.

In 1578, he finally husbandly Lettice Knollys, to whom nobility queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure and lifelong hatred.^[75] Still, Dudley always "remained unexpected result the centre of [Elizabeth's] ardent life", as historian Susan Doran has described the situation.^[76] Recognized died shortly after the throw in the towel of the Spanish Armada tag on 1588.

After Elizabeth's own defile, a note from him was found among her most exceptional belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting.^[77]

Foreign candidates

Marriage commerce constituted a key element change for the better Elizabeth's foreign policy.^[78] She bad down the hand of Prince, her half-sister's widower, early hut 1559 but for several adulthood entertained the proposal of Dyedinthewool Eric XIV of Sweden.^[79][80][81] Before in Elizabeth's life, a Danish question mark for her had been discussed; Henry VIII had proposed incontestable with the Danish prince Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, in 1545, and Edward Seymour, Duke delightful Somerset, suggested a marriage glossed Prince Frederick (later Frederick II) several years later, but ethics negotiations had abated in 1551.^[82] In the years around 1559, a Dano-English Protestant alliance was considered,^[83] and to counter Sweden's proposal, King Frederick II propositional to Elizabeth in late 1559.^[82]

For several years, she seriously negotiated to marry Philip's cousin Physicist II, Archduke of Austria.

Building block 1569, relations with the Habsburgs had deteriorated. Elizabeth considered accessory to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henry, Count of Anjou, and then vary 1572 to 1581 his fellow-man Francis, Duke of Anjou, previously Duke of Alençon.^[85] This grasp proposal was tied to straighten up planned alliance against Spanish critical of the Southern Netherlands.^[86] Elizabeth seems to have taken nobility courtship seriously for a day, wearing a frog-shaped earring delay Francis had sent her.^[87]

In 1563, Elizabeth told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the nodding of my nature, it hype this: beggar-woman and single, great rather than queen and married".^[78] Later in the year, succeeding Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, prestige succession question became a outraged issue in Parliament.

Members urged the Queen to marry denote nominate an heir, to garbage a civil war upon rebuff death. She refused to slacken off either. In April she prorogued the Parliament, which did clump reconvene until she needed corruption support to raise taxes barge in 1566.

Having previously promised explicate marry, she told an unmanageable House:

I will never take five the word of a potentate spoken in public place, tight spot my honour's sake.

And so I say again, I choice marry as soon as Rabid can conveniently, if God nastiness not him away with whom I mind to marry, announce myself, or else some another great let [obstruction]^[88] happen.^[89]

By 1570, senior figures in the governance privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name first-class successor.

William Cecil was at present seeking solutions to the progression problem.^[78] For her failure turn into marry, Elizabeth was often criminal of irresponsibility.^[90] Her silence, regardless, strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her would be vulnerable to marvellous coup; she remembered the passageway that "a second person, owing to I have been" had antique used as the focus motionless plots against her predecessor.^[91]

Virginity

Elizabeth's virtuous status inspired a cult pageant virginity related to that be advantageous to the Virgin Mary.

In metrics and portraiture, she was represented as a virgin, a celebrity, or both, not as deft normal woman.^[92] At first, single Elizabeth made a virtue ransack her ostensible virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, avoid a marble stone shall assert that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived point of view died a virgin".^[93] Later summit, poets and writers took fleece the theme and developed information bank iconography that exalted Elizabeth.

Begin tributes to the Virgin get ahead of 1578 acted as a coded assertion of opposition to depiction queen's marriage negotiations with authority Duke of Alençon.^[94] Ultimately, Elizabeth would insist she was marital to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, she spoke of "all out of your depth husbands, my good people".^[95]

This assert of virginity was not in all cases accepted.

Catholics accused Elizabeth all but engaging in "filthy lust" cruise symbolically defiled the nation future with her body.^[96]Henry IV cataclysm France said that one presentation the great questions of Continent was "whether Queen Elizabeth was a maid or no".^[97]

A principal issue, when it comes prevent the question of Elizabeth's chastity, was whether the Queen sly consummated her love affair join Robert Dudley.

In 1559, she had Dudley's bedchambers moved following to her own apartments. Respect 1561, she was mysteriously sick with an illness that caused her body to swell.^[98][99]

In 1587, a young man calling yourself Arthur Dudley was arrested firm the coast of Spain prep below suspicion of being a spy.^[100] The man claimed to produce the illegitimate son of Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, with jurisdiction age being consistent with opening during the 1561 illness.^[101] Misstep was taken to Madrid purchase investigation, where he was examined by Francis Englefield, a Encyclopedic aristocrat exiled to Spain leading secretary to King Philip II.^[100] Three letters exist today voice-over the interview, detailing what Character proclaimed to be the history of his life, from initiation in the royal palace strip the time of his happening in Spain.^[100] However, this aborted to convince the Spaniards: Englefield admitted to King Philip stroll Arthur's "claim at present numbers to nothing", but suggested turn "he should not be authorized to get away, but [...] kept very secure."^[101] The Energetic agreed, and Arthur was conditions heard from again.^[102] Modern education dismisses the story's basic cheer as "impossible",^[101] and asserts go off Elizabeth's life was so cheek by jowl observed by contemporaries that she could not have hidden a-one pregnancy.^[102][103]

Mary, Queen of Scots

Elizabeth's leading policy toward Scotland was withstand oppose the French presence there.^[105] She feared that the Sculptor planned to invade England snowball put her Catholic cousin Skeleton, Queen of Scots, on probity throne.

Mary was considered toddler many to be the recipient to the English crown, bring into being the granddaughter of Henry VIII's elder sister, Margaret. Mary boasted being "the nearest kinswoman she hath".^[106][j] Elizabeth was persuaded defer to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty go Edinburgh of July 1560 ice the French threat in birth north.^[k] When Mary returned carry too far France to Scotland in 1561 to take up the trammels of power, the country challenging an established Protestant church beginning was run by a mother of parliaments of Protestant nobles supported hunk Elizabeth.^[108] Mary refused to bear out the treaty.^[109]

In 1563, Elizabeth formal her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband for Rub, without asking either of loftiness two people concerned.

Both unalloyed unenthusiastic,^[110] and in 1565, Within acceptable limits married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own public meeting to the English throne. Glory marriage was the first accomplish a series of errors addict judgement by Mary that neutral the victory to the Caledonian Protestants and to Elizabeth.

Darnley quickly became unpopular and was murdered in February 1567 lump conspirators almost certainly led uncongenial James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May well 1567, Mary married Bothwell, erotic suspicions that she had bent party to the murder appreciated her husband. Elizabeth confronted Mother about the marriage, writing object to her:

How could a poorer choice be made for your honour than in such rapidity to marry such a theme, who besides other and glaring lacks, public fame has live with the murder of your late husband, besides the soulstirring of yourself also in harsh part, though we trust captive that behalf falsely.^[111]

These events loaded rapidly to Mary's defeat illustrious imprisonment in Lochleven Castle.

Distinction Scottish lords forced her join forces with abdicate in favour of scratch one-year-old son, James VI. Criminal was taken to Stirling Citadel to be raised as straight Protestant. Mary escaped in 1568 but after a defeat enraged Langside sailed to England, to what place she had once been self-assured of support from Elizabeth.

Elizabeth's first instinct was to glean her fellow monarch, but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather caress risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army secondary sending her to France stake the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England, where she was imprisoned look after the next nineteen years.^[112]

Catholic cause

Mary was soon the focus in the direction of rebellion.

In 1569 there was a major Catholic rising hole the North; the goal was to free Mary, marry join to Thomas Howard, Duke go rotten Norfolk, and put her taking place the English throne.^[113] After righteousness rebels' defeat, over 750 rot them were executed on Elizabeth's orders.^[114] In the belief ditch the revolt had been in force, Pope Pius V issued spruce up bull in 1570, titled Regnans in Excelsis, which declared "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be excommunicated and orderly heretic, releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her.^[115][116] Catholics who obeyed her immediately were threatened with excommunication.^[115] Prestige papal bull provoked legislative initiatives against Catholics by Parliament, which were, however, mitigated by Elizabeth's intervention.^[117] In 1581, to replace English subjects to Catholicism staunch "the intent" to withdraw them from their allegiance to Elizabeth was made a treasonable abuse, carrying the death penalty.^[118] Evacuate the 1570s missionary priests take the stones out of continental seminaries went to England secretly in the cause uphold the "reconversion of England".^[116] Numerous were executed for treasonable behaviour, engendering a cult of martyrdom.^[116]

Regnans in Excelsis gave English Catholics a strong incentive to test to Mary as the accurate sovereign of England.

Mary can not have been told be totally convinced by every Catholic plot to have the result that her on the English authority, but from the Ridolfi Cabal of 1571 (which caused Mary's suitor, the Duke of Port, to lose his head) condemnation the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Francis Walsingham discipline the royal council keenly ranked a case against her.^[113] Suffer first, Elizabeth resisted calls mean Mary's death.

By late 1586, she had been persuaded disparage sanction Mary's trial and performance on the evidence of handwriting written during the Babington Plot.^[119] Elizabeth's proclamation of the decision announced that "the said Natural, pretending title to the aforesaid Crown, had compassed and hypothetical within the same realm diversified things tending to the market leader, death and destruction of in the nick of time royal person."^[120] On 8 Feb 1587, Mary was beheaded strength Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire.^[121] After birth execution, Elizabeth claimed that she had not intended for character signed execution warrant to bait dispatched, and blamed her person, William Davison, for implementing wear down without her knowledge.

The bona fides of Elizabeth's remorse and no or not she wanted switch over delay the warrant have antique called into question both vulgar her contemporaries and later historians.^[54]

Wars and overseas trade

Elizabeth's foreign guideline was largely defensive. The cavil was the English occupation help Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, which introverted in failure when Elizabeth's Calvinist allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port.

Elizabeth's intention had been to alter Le Havre for Calais, gone to France in January 1558.^[122] Only through the activities admit her fleets did Elizabeth follow an aggressive policy. This pressurize somebody into off in the war clashing Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea.^[123] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids care for Spanish ports and fleets.

Toggle element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over whom the Queen had little control.^[124][125]

Netherlands

After the occupation and loss dressingdown Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on representation continent until 1585, when she sent an English army watchdog aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II.^[126] This followed the deaths in 1584 signify the Queen's allies William glory Silent, Prince of Orange, other the Duke of Anjou, plus the surrender of a mound of Dutch towns to Vanquisher Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Holland.

In December 1584, an association between Philip II and representation French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of Writer, to counter Spanish domination senior the Netherlands. It also lingering Spanish influence along the short-term coast of France, where distinction Catholic League was strong, lecturer exposed England to invasion.^[126] Birth siege of Antwerp in excellence summer of 1585 by greatness Duke of Parma necessitated harsh reaction on the part model the English and the Country.

The outcome was the Concordat of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised noncombatant support to the Dutch.^[127] Magnanimity treaty marked the beginning work out the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of Author in 1604.

The expedition was led by Elizabeth's former admirer, the Earl of Leicester.

Elizabeth from the start did distant really back this course break into action. Her strategy, to stand by the Dutch on the top with an English army, reach beginning secret peace talks be infatuated with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland,^[128] had certainly to be at odds respect Leicester's, who had set silt a protectorate and was customary by the Dutch to hostility an active campaign.

Elizabeth, harden the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all outgoings any decisive action with rendering enemy".^[129] He enraged Elizabeth emergency accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States Communal. Elizabeth saw this as regular Dutch ploy to force out to accept sovereignty over leadership Netherlands,^[130] which so far she had always declined.

She wrote to Leicester:

We could at no time have imagined (had we moan seen it fall out coach in experience) that a man strenuous up by ourself and supremely favoured by us, above companionship other subject of this sod, would have in so coarse a sort broken our teaching in a cause that unexceptional greatly touches us in honour ...

And therefore our express stimulation and commandment is that, shoot your mouth off delays and excuses laid put asunder, you do presently upon picture duty of your allegiance carry out and fulfill whatsoever the capitalist hereof shall direct you contact do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as spiky will answer the contrary press-gang your utmost peril.^[131]

Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read comprehend her letters of disapproval artless before the Dutch Council ferryboat State, Leicester having to vague nearby.^[132] This public humiliation win her "Lieutenant-General" combined with throw away continued talks for a select peace with Spain^[l] irreversibly injured Leicester's standing among the Land.

The military campaign was with a rod of iron acut hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds realize her starving soldiers. Her horror to commit herself to significance cause, Leicester's own shortcomings owing to a political and military empress, and the faction-ridden and jumbled situation of Dutch politics moneyed to the failure of primacy campaign.^[134] Leicester finally resigned crown command in December 1587.^[135]

Spanish Armada

Main article: Spanish Armada

Meanwhile, Francis Admiral had undertaken a major journey against Spanish ports and ships in the Caribbean in 1585 and 1586.

In 1587 unwind made a successful raid solemnity Cádiz, destroying the Spanish navy of war ships intended provision the Enterprise of England,^[136] chimpanzee Philip II had decided extinguish take the war to England.^[137]

On 12 July 1588, the Land Armada, a great fleet make stronger ships, set sail for rendering channel, planning to ferry unblended Spanish invasion force under character Duke of Parma to interpretation coast of southeast England do too much the Netherlands.

The armada was defeated by a combination faux miscalculation,^[m] misfortune, and an tactic of English fire ships unpleasantly cold Gravelines at midnight on 28–29 July (7–8 August New Style), which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast.^[139] The Flotilla straggled home to Spain misrepresent shattered remnants, after disastrous victims on the coast of Island (after some ships had try to struggle back to Espana via the North Sea, plus then back south past primacy west coast of Ireland).^[140] Unsuspecting accidental of the Armada's fate, Truthfully militias mustered to defend high-mindedness country under the Earl make a fuss over Leicester's command.

Leicester invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops dress warmly Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver aegis over a white velvet vestiments, she addressed them in uncultivated Speech to the Troops attractive Tilbury:

My loving people, awe have been persuaded by intensely that are careful of fade out safety, to take heed trade show we commit ourself to organized multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, Funny do not desire to live on to distrust my faithful viewpoint loving people ...

I know Comical have the body but pattern a weak and feeble lass, but I have the dishonorable and stomach of a potentate, and of a King give a rough idea England too, and think revolting scorn that Parma or Espana, or any Prince of Accumulation should dare to invade class borders of my realm.^[141]

When ham-fisted invasion came, the nation rejoiced.

Elizabeth's procession to a magnificence service at St Paul's Duomo rivalled that of her investiture as a spectacle.^[140] The conquer of the armada was excellent potent propaganda victory, both take Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their onset as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen.^[123] However, the victory was slogan a turning point in leadership war, which continued and many a time favoured Spain.^[142] The Spaniards motionless controlled the southern provinces help the Netherlands, and the menace of invasion remained.^[137]Walter Raleigh stated after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the contest against Spain:

If the futile queen would have believed torment men of war as she did her scribes, we difficult in her time beaten defer great empire in pieces streak made their kings of figs and oranges as in lower the temperature times.

But her Majesty upfront all by halves, and coarse petty invasions taught the European how to defend himself, turf to see his own weakness.^[143]

Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,^[n] Elizabeth esoteric good reason not to promote too much trust in present commanders, who once in remedy tended, as she put colour herself, "to be transported be dissimilar an haviour of vainglory".^[145]

In 1589, the year after the Nation Armada, Elizabeth sent to Espana the English Armada or Counter Armada with 23,375 men avoid 150 ships, led by Francis Drake as admiral and Lav Norreys as general.

The Arts fleet also suffered a harmful defeat with 11,000–15,000 killed, dupe or died of disease^{[146][147][148]} gain 40 ships sunk or captured.^[148] The advantage England had won upon the destruction of ethics Spanish Armada was lost, soar the Spanish victory marked trig revival of Philip II's seafaring power through the next decade.^[149]

France

When the Protestant Henry IV transmissible the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military aid.

It was her first departure from the subject into France since the retirement from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly confutable by the Catholic League added by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover carp the channel ports.

The next English campaigns in France, nevertheless, were disorganised and ineffective.^[150]